MATERIALS FOR THE STUDY OF SIKH COMMUNITIES
IN NORTH AMERICA, 1907-1974
By
Dr. Bruce La Brack
It has been said of Sikhs that they are too busy making their history to record it. With the exception of a small number of dedicated scholars (such as Prof. Ganda Singh, Khushwant Singh, etc.) this is unfortunately true, particularly in North America. This situation need not continue for there is a significant amount of published material available for the researcher of Sikh history in the United States and Canada. The difficulty is that such materials are scattered over a seventy-year period, often to be found in obscure journals or special collections. IN order to promote and facilitate research by Sikhs on Sikh history, the Sikh Sansar with reprint a series in successive issues that is perhaps the most extensive bibliography now available on South Asian immigration to North America. Originally compiled and annotated by an anthropologist working among California Sikh communities, the bibliography has been expanded for SIKH SANSAR and a section added on archival resources. We hope that making such resources available will create an interest in the history of Sikh immigration and settlement in North America and stimulate further research. The author and editor realize that this initial bibliographical effort is only a beginning. We encourage our readers to bring to our attention additional citations of articles, books, and pamphlets which may have been overlooked. We further urge anyone who knows of the existence or location of other types of historic materials (such as family histories, legal documents, correspondence, diaries, photographs, tape recordings, etc.) which could be made available for study and cataloging to contact Sikh Sansar. IN this way we can add to our knowledge and understanding of Sikh history in North America and preserve the story of our struggles and successes for future generations.
“British Indians and Citizenship in White Men’s Countries,” THE OUTLOOK. 87:1 (September 7, 1907), pp. 7-8.
In this brief summary, the author discusses the possible impact of U.S. Attorney General Bonaparte’s ruling that natives of British India were ineligible as U.S. citizens on the governments of Natal and Transvaal in South Africa. The U.S. ruling was asked for and handed down “as a consequence of Hindus … having applied for citizenship” in San Francisco. The author contends that the U.S. ruling will not be objected to by the British government, but a similar denial from the Boer government might strain British relations with its colony. The South African arguments against equal treatment of East Indians were both racial and economic. East Indians are currently denied citizenship in now-independent South Africa.
“The Hindu: The filth of Asia,” THE WHITE MAN. (August 1910).
The Self-explanatory title reveals the nature of the article. Typical of the hate literature genre, its main appeal was to emotion and prejudice. This particularly scurrilous magazine was dedicated to “Racial Segregation and International Equity” and was published in San Francisco during one period of anti-Asian activity.
Johnson, Annette Thachwell. “Armageddon?” INDEPENDENT. 109 (November 25, 1922), pp. 296-298.
In this literary style account of the origins of Sikhism with brief references to the grievances against the British and Canadians, Johnson dramatically tries to point up the crisis over acceptance or rejection of Sikhs in Canada and the United States. She concludes that, “If we do not do something for the Orientals in our midst – they will do something to us,” and that Americans should, “ …. Change a ménage into an asset.”
“Hindus Too Brunette to Vote Here,” LITERARY DIGEST. 76.13 (March 10, 1923), p.13.
Reflection continued opposition to Hindu immigration, this article cites California newspaper comments on the Thind case. Papers which approved the action included the Sacramento Bee and the San Francisco Chronicle. The Overall tenor is reflected in the Chronicle quote, “We have already in this country all the race problems we can handle.”
“United States vs. Bhagat Singh Thind, Decided February 19, 1923,” SUPREME COURT REPORTER. 43:10 (April 1, 1923), pp. 338-342.
This is the legal summary of the case in which “Hindus” (the defendant was a Sikh) were declared ineligible for citizenship.
Das, Taraknath. “Stateless Persons in the U.S.A.,” CALCUTTA REVIEW. 16:1 (July 1925), pp. 40-46. (Third Series).
The author provides and excellent short review of the specific acts which reduced many East Indians and their American wives to the status of “stateless persons.”
Chase, Raymond and S.G. Pandit. AN EXAMINATION OF THE OPINION OF THE SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES DECIDING AGAINST THE ELIGIBILITY OF HINDUS FOR CITIZENSHIP. Los Angeles: privately printed (penker, Stone and Baird Co.), 1926. 18 pp.
This pamphlet discusses two key concepts of the Thind Case (1923): first, the notion of “free white person” and; second, the use of assimilability as a criterion of statutory race (p. 12), as well as the assumed “will of Congress” for racial homogeneity among American citizens. The authors conclude that the Thind Decision should be revised.
Schibsby, Marian, “Hindus and American Citizenship.” In ‘PROCEEDINGS OF THE NATIONAL CONFERENCE OF SOCIAL WORK, 1927, pp. 579-581.
In this short statement, Schibsby sympathetically notes the difficulties caused East Indians by the Sutherland decision of 1923, and concludes that, “At the present time … the Hindus have reason to feel more hopeful.” The optimism was premature as rectifying legislation was not enacted until 1946.
“Race Discrimination in Naturalization,” IOWA LAW BULLETIN. 8 (1928), pp. 129-161.
The legality and propriety of denying naturalization on the basis of “racial” classification (citing the Thind case) are questioned.
McGovney, D.O. “Naturalization of the Mixed Blood-A Dictum,” CALIFORNIA LAW REVIEW. 2 (May 1934), pp. 377-391.
McGovney criticizes the decision in U.S. vs. Thind and the application of the “one-quarter ineligible blood” in naturalization classifications.
Pandia, D.P. and MMe. Kamaladevi. “Justive for Hindus in America,” THE CHRISTIAN CENTURY. 57 (March 13, 1940), p. 357.
This is one of many “letters-to-the-editor” written by East Indians abroad in support of the efforts of U.S. East Indians to abolish “alien land laws” and “barred zone” provisions, and, in some cases restore citizenship and the right to naturalization. The authors contend that approximately fifty Hindus were being threatened with deportation at the time – their only crime being entering the country illegally (some as long as 20 years before).
Samras, K.R. “Naturalization for Hindus,” NATION. 151 (November 23, 1940), p. 516.
Another “letter-to-the-editor” written by a Berkeley-based Indian to generate support of his petition for citizenship. Realizing that the courts would deny his petition based on the Supreme Court’s 1923 ruling (the Thind decision), he intended to make a test case of his naturalization attempt and to aid the “4,000 Hindus, one-fourth of whom are married to American citizens.”
Jacoby, Harold S. “More Thind Against Than Sinning,” PACIFIC HISTORIAN. 2:4 (November 1958), p.1.
Jacoby reviews the case in which Bhagat Singh Thind was declared ineligible for citizenship on the basis of race. Although “scientifically” classified as Caucasian, East Indians were considered “Oriental” by the Immigration and Naturalization Service, which agitated to have Indians declared ineligible for citizenship. Justice Sutherland, rendering the decision for the Supreme Court, declared that not all “Caucasians” are “white persons.” The legal consequences of this judgment are noted, including the cancellation of citizenship of over forty naturalized East Indians.
Gardner, Ray. “when Vancouver Turned Back The Sikhs,” MACLEANS MAGAZINE. November 8, 1958, pp. 31.
A popular but well-researched account of the Komagata Maru incident which examines conflicts among the Sikhs as well as the political and moral issues involving Canada, Great Britain and India.
Chandra, Kananur V. SOCIAL DISCRIMINATION IN CANADA: ASIAN MINORITIES. San Francisco: R and E Research Associates, 1973. 80 pp.
Based on a study attempting to define the nature and extent for discrimination against minority groups from India, Pakistan, and Bangla Desh who were residents of Montreal in 1971, personal interviews with 180 East Indians (of a total East Indian population of about 1800) and 76 interviews with “potential discriminators” were conducted. A final field test was devised in which 140 situations where discrimination could be measure were “set-up.” The results showed a definite pattern of differential treatment against “colored migrants,” particularly in housing and economic spheres. The main reason given by Canadian employers for refusing to hire East Indians was that they had “no Canadian experience” (i.e., lack of familiarity with Canadian cultural and social institutions), and not because of a lack of job skills.
Jensen, Joan M. FEDERAL POLICY IN THE SHAPING OF INDIAN OCCUPATIONS IN THE UNITED STATES, 1900-1917. Unpublished paper delivered at Western Conference of Asian Studies, November 1974. 17 pp.
Concentrating on the period of initial immigration, the author shows how the federal government, through a series of legal actions, closed many avenues of economic endeavor to East Indians. The thesis of the paper is that men who came from India to find economic freedom eventually came to be count by a whole network of laws which “made them outcastes and imposed a new western caste system on them.”
Dodd, Werter D. “Hindu in the Northwes,” WORLD TODAY. 13:1 (July 1907), pp. 1157-1160.
This is a very negative evaluation of the East Indian worker on the Pacific Coast. The Hindu is not considered a race problem, as are the Japanese and Chinese, but an “industrial” one which will become a substantial factor in labor market competition.
“Anti-Oriental Riots,” THE INDEPENDENT. 63:3067 (September 12, 1907), pp. 592-593.
This news report briefly covers the opposition of American laboring classes to “Asiatic immigration,” specifically the riots in Vancouver, British Columbia and Bellingham, Washington.
“Asiatics in Vancouver,” THE INDEPENDENT. 63:3068 (September 19, 1907), pp. 658-659.
In a follow-up story to the article above, the situation in British Columbia was viewed as potentially dangerous because antagonism against “Asiatic” people was increasing and the opposition becoming more organized. The report says that English papers blame the Vancouver riot on Americans, “because they set the example in San Francisco and Bellingham” and because representatives of the amto-Japanese and Korean League from California and Washington were in British Columbia when the demonstrations broke out.
Singh, Saint Nihal. “The Picturesque Immigrant from India’s Coral Strand,” OUT WEST. 30:1 (January 1909), pp. 42-54.
Written in a flowery and almost condescending style, Singh describes the appearance, motives and activities of East Indians who had recently migrated to the U.S. from India, Burma, China and the Malaya Straits. He points out the color prejudice which affected many of the darker Indians, the economic deprivation of some workers, and the growing hostility of surrounding communities towards “Orientals.” He concludes, however, that “No Matter what station of life he may belong to, or what culture he may possess, the East Indian immigrant, when he leaves America, takes home with him a dynamic love of liberty and sentiments of democracy.” At that time, most East Indians were considered “passenger” migrants who would someday return to India.
Das, Rejani K. HINDUSTANI WORKERS ON THE PACIFIC COAST. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 1923. 126 pp.
The best general survey of East Indian immigrants on the Pacific Coast for the first two decades of the century, this covers immigration, geographical distribution, occupations, unionism, working conditions, living standards, social life and cultural practices, and problems of prejudice, as well as the barriers to assimilation. Das concludes that although Indians are a small group on the Pacific Coast for the first two decades of the century, this covers immigration, geographical distribution, occupations, unionism, working conditions, living standards, social life and cultural practices, and problems of prejudice as well as the barriers to assimilation. Das concludes that although Indians are a small group on the Pacific Coast, the continuation of discrimination against them might cause India to break commercial relations with the United States.
Mukerji, Dhan Gopal. CASTE AND OUTCASTE. New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., 1923. 303 pp.
Mukerji, a Hindu Brahman, was a prolific author who often sought to interpret Indian culture to Western audiences. In this book he gives a small glimpse of what life was like for East Indian agricultural laborers “in California fields” (the title of Chapter IV). As a student, Mukerji himself worked picking various crops such as asparagus, hops, and fruit. He mentions many aspects of migrant life, including the hard drinking, long hours, arduous tasks, and the social bonds formed among East Indian workers. There is an amusing encounter between Salvation Army missionaries and a group of workers in which Mukerji acted as translator.
Fernandez, Bonifacio. “East Indian Contributions to Agricultural Development in Central California,” DEVELOPMENT PROBLEMS IN SELECTED CALIFORNIA AREAS. Mimeo, 1953, pp. 130-147.
This article contains a short review of East Indian migration to California, a discussion of the geographical distribution of East Indians in the San Joaquin and Sacramento Valleys, and an assessment of the East Indian contribution to rice and cotton farming.
Johns, Watson L. THE HINDU IN CALIFORNIA. Unpublished manuscript, 1941. 12 pp.
Written as a term paper for an economics course at the University of Oregon, this paper contains almost every stereotype then current. It is included not for its value as a source, but because this paper is often one of the few items found in some smaller California libraries which deals with the East Indian population. Why this particular paper has been so widely circulated is unknown, although the professor in charge rated the paper “Very Good.” It is a classic case of superficial cultural criticism.
Chandrasekhar, S. “Indian Communities in the United States,” FAR EASTERN SURVEY. 14:11 (June 6, 1945), pp. 147-149.
A short historical portrait of the “British Indian community of less than 5,000 persons,” this article relates the occupational characteristics, the migratory nature of work, and the development of rice cultivation to the agricultural patterns of East Indians in California. The fact that East Indians were then ineligible for citizenship is mentioned.
Miller, Allan P. AN ETHNOGRAPHIC REPORT ON THE SIKH (EAST) INDIANS OF THE SACRAMENTO VALLEY. Manuscript University of California Berkeley, 1950. 148 pp.
Field work for this paper was conducted in the summer of 1947 and represents the only in-depth ethnographic information which currently exists for the Sikhs in Northern California. Collected at a time when the majority of the East Indians were still single and unable to won land, it provides a baseline for gauging the changes which have occurred since Indian Independence (1948). Divided into ten sections, it covers: Background and Population of the Sikhs of Sacramento Valley; Religion; Economics and Property; Political Organization; Social Life; Crime; Marriage; Food and Eating Habits; Homes; and Funeral Practices.
Dadabhay, Yusuf. “Circuitous Assimilation Among Rural Hindustanis in California,” SOCIAL FORCES. 33 (December 1954), pp. 138-141.
Based on a survey of 50 Sikh immigrants, 11 of whom had married Mexican wives, the author posted the theory of “circuitous assimilation.” His propsitin was that very small ethnic minority (in this case, East Indian) would be assimilated into the “American” society by being first merged into a larger and better recognized ethinc segment of the country (Mexican American). Further research has failed to prove the validity of this theory, but the data is interesting as a gimpse of a social process which was more of an “interlude” caused by restrictive immigration laws than a prologue to assimilation.
Jacoby, Harold S. A HALF-CENTURY APPRAISAL OF EAST INDIANS IN THE UNITED STATES. University of the Pacific Faculty Research Lecture, May 23, 1956, Stockton, California. 35 pp.
Viewed from the perspective of a sociologist, this “appraisal” seeks to examine the nature of the assimilation process and the way in which it has affected East Indians. Unlike most materials on “East Indians” which deal primarily with Sikhs, the author covers Pakistani Muslims, Punjabi Sikhs, and Hindus. He divides the migration groups into: “Old Timers” (1904-1917); Students (1917-1924); Illegal (1920-1930); and Quota Immigrants (1946-Present). Geographic distribution, religion and caste backgrounds are discussed as a preface to more specific examinations of material culture, personal habits, crime and delinquency, food and drink, language and beliefs. The last section discusses the East Indian situation in terms of social integration and amalgamation.
Mayer, Adrian C. A REPORT ON THE EAST INDIAN COMMUNITY IN VANCOUVER. Institute of Social and Economic Research, University of Vancouver, British Columbia, 1959. 39 pp.
This ethnographic survey of the East Indian (over 90% Sikh) community in Greater Vancouver contains information on the history of settlement, caste, marriage, household and kin groups, village and region of origin, religious activity and the temple, associations, and relationships between the Indian community and Canadian society. This group is seen as an ethnic enclave which is held together by religious and cultural identities but driven internally by factions and assertions of individuality.
Littleton, C. Scott. “Some Aspects of Social Stratifications Among the Immigrant Punjabi Communities of California,” in CULTURE CHANGE AND STABILITY, Ralph L. Beals (ed.). Publication of the Department of Anthropology, University of California – Los Angeles, 1964, pp. 105-116.
This research paper discusses some of the factors contributing to social stratification and the nature of status positions within the Punjabi society of the 1940’s and 1950’s. Various criterion such as caste background, economic situation, education, and degree of assimilation are noted as important components of status definition. As the author notes, the use of “high,” “middle,” and “low” class as categories is somewhat simplistic although useful in establishing abroad analytical frameworks from a sociological standpoint.
Davids, Leo. “The East Indian Family Overseas,” SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC STUDEIS. 13:3 (September 1964), pp. 383-394.
Focusing on changes in family structure, this article compares immigrant marriage patterns in North America, Fiji, the Caribbean Islands, and the Guianas. The author’s summary that caste “except as an expendable preference, is gone” is an overstatement, although he correctly asserts that caste in overseas areas is not as rigid or as all-encompassing as in India.
Jain, Usha R. THE GUJARATIS OF SAN FRANCISCO. M.A.: University of California, Berkeley, 1964. 127 pp.
This thesis describes a small (22 families) group patel (agricultural caste) Gujuratis who have become successful hotel owners in the Bay Area. Their migration history, religious practices, community and family organization, and attitudes towards American education and social life are noted in some detail. At the time of the study, little intergenerational conflict over cultural ideals was evident and second-generation Gujurati East Indians showed little evidence of assimilation.
Wenzel, Lawrence A. “The Rural Punjabis of California: A Religio-Ethnic Group,” PHYLON: THE ATLANTA UNIVERSITY REVIEW OF RACE AND CULTURE. LX Atlanta, 1968. pp. 245-256.
In a general overview of the cultural characteristics of Punjabi Sikhs and their present circumstances in the Sutter County area, Wenzel includes material on immigration and legal controls, economic activities, family life, politics, Indian nationalism, associations, and religious activities. He stresses the close relationship between the Sikh religion and individual Punjabi character. (Condensations of this work are available as “The Sikhs of Sutter County,” Sikh Sansar, 1:4 (December 1972), pp. 115-121 and “The East Indians of Sutter County,” The North State Review, 3:1 (April 1968), Chico: Chico State College, pp. 15-25).
Greenwood, Lenoard. “El Centro’s Community of Sikhs Dying Out,” LOS ANGELES TIMES. Part 2 (December 28, 1966), p. 1.
Greenwood traces the early struggles of the Sikhs who settled in the Imperial Valley, including family separations, immigration bans, legal battles and discrimination. The community faces cultural extinction because only the old people are staying in the area, the younger Sikhs moving either to the cities (Los Angeles and San Francisco) or to other East Indian communities, such as Yuba City and Stockton.
Chakravorti, Robindra C. THE SIKHS OF EL CENTRO: A STUDY IN SOCIAL INTEGRATION. Ph.D.: University of Minnesota, 1968. 150 pp.
The author conducted a sociological study of the process of social integration of Sikh immigrants from India settled in and around El Centro (Imperial Valley), California. Within the theoretical framework of a modified version of Park’s theory of assimilation, the author found significant differences between India-born and American-born Sikhs in the degree of assimilation and accommodation. He concludes that the relative size of the minority group and its will to maintain its subsystem are two key variables that may determine the nature and rapidity of the process of integration. The dissertation includes an informative chapter on the social life and institutions of El Centro Sikhs.
Gupta, Santosh Prabha. THE ACCULTURATION OF ASIAN INDIANS IN CENTRAL PENNSYLVANIA. Ph.D.: Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, 1969. 219 pp.
The data for this study was gathered through library research, participant observation, and informal interviewing of 50 East Indians, primarily Hindus, living in Central Pennsylvania. Gupta suggests that acculturation in religious practices and food habits is occurring rapidly while attitudes towards social life, marriage, and kinship obligations are most resistant to change. Stages of adjustment to American society are characterized as: “Period of Antagonism and Cultural Curiosity” lasting a year or so; “Period of Agreement and Adoption” lasting from two to five years; and “The Period of Cultural Stability” beginning after five to ten years of residence in the United States. This is one of the few recent acculturation studies of East Indians in the United States and the only one dealing with Indian residents of Pennsylvania other than students.
Bradfield, Helen Haynes. THE EAST INDIANS OF YUBA CITY: A STUDY IN ACCULTURATION. M.A.: Sacramento State College, 1971. 133 pp.
The thesis is a study of the mechanisms inhibiting or assisting acculturation of Sikhs in the Sutter County area of the Sacramento Valley. Based in large part on an analysis of the applicability of Milton Gordon’s theory of “structural pluralism,” the research covers a broad spectrum of topics, including a description of the study area, history of the Sikhs, religious practices, political factionalism, and the generational differences in perceptions and social activities. A short section deals with the attitudes of the larger community towards East Indians.
Reeves, Walford, “Indian Emigrants Adopt a New Way of Life,” ILLUSTRATED WEEKLY OF INDIA. 92:2 (January 10, 1971), p.15.
Reeves gives a superficial overview of attitude changes among Canadian economic and residential patterns.
Loehlin, Dr. C. H. “The Sikhs of California,” SIKH SANSAR. 1:3 (September 1972), pp. 68-72.
This is a brief description of California’s Sikh communities, including an analysis of their assimilation into American life and the outlook for future acculturation of second-generation East Indians.
Singh, Sardar Puna. “My Early Years in America,” SIKH SANSAR. 1:4 (December 1972), pp. 109-110. (Adapted from a narrative by Ms. J.P.Singh).
In a very brief biographical statement, the daughter of one of California’s earliest Sikh pioneers relates her father’s experiences - from leaving India at age 16 (1906), to establishing a dairy and farming enterprise in 1929.
Sidu, Gurnam Singh, “Saga of the American Sikh,” SIKH SANSAR. 1:4 (December 1972), pp. 99-105.
This is a succinct summary of early Sikh migration and its attendant conflicts in Canada and America. The author stresses the role of the Stockton Gurdwara as a religious and social center. Up to 1946, the absence of Indian women is viewed as the single most destructive factor in the disintegration of the Sikh community.
Dodd, Balbinder Singh. SOCIAL CHANGE IN TWO OVERSEAS SIKH COMMUNITITES. B.A.: University of British Columbia, 1972. 43 pp.
Dodd’s paper examines the effects of religious ideology on societal institutions, particularly in promoting group cohesiveness. He compares the Sikh settlements in British Columbia with immigrants to Britain, contrasting both with their home communities in the Punjab. The historical background Sikh ideology, community social structure, immigration patters, religious organization, political life, family patterns, and economic involvement of various Sikh groups are compared.
Shah, Khalid H. and Linda Shah. “Indians in New York,” ILLUSTRATED WEEKLY OF INDIA. XCI:16 (April 22, 1973), pp. 19-22.
The authors claim there are 50,000 Indians and Pakistanis in New York, many of them in professional, industrial and governmental positions. According to them, unlike earlier European and Asian migrants, the majority of East Indians are educated and affluent. They have for the most part retained not only their cultural identity, but actively participate in Indian religious, social and artistic events.
Thadani, Jaya. “Indians in Washington,” ILLUSTRATED WEEKLY OF INDIA. XCIV:31 (August 5, 1973), pp. 45-49.
Thandani gives an impressionistic view of the 3,000 to 5,000 Indian nationals in Washington, D.C. Mostly non-resident professionals in diplomatic or allied occupations, the scene described as atypical and other more permanent East Indian populations elsewhere in America. However, their reported social isolation is similar throughout the United States.
Ames, Michael M. and Joy Inglis. “Conflict and Change in British Columbia Sikh Family Life,” BRITISH COLUMBIA STUDIES (BC STUDIES). No. 20 (winter 1973-74), pp. 15-49.
This is an excellent article which details the changes that heave occurred in Sikh family structure and roles. Comparisons are made between Canadian patterns, traditional Indian models, and ideal Canadian-Sikh family patters. A high degree of persistence was found in religion, marriage, and age and sex-based on differentiation patterns, while changes in family type, economic allocation of resources, political allocation of authority, and education were found.
Fleurent, Anne K. “Incorporation into Networks Among Sikhs in Los Angeles,” URBAN ANTHROPOLOGY. 3:1 (Spring 1974), pp. 27-33.
Although primarily a discussion of research problems encountered while studying a geographically dispersed urban community this article discusses the role of the Sikh temple as an integrative institution. Kinship and other types of networks which link its estimated 500 members are briefly outlined. Total population is probably close to 2500.
La Brack, Bruce. “The Growth of the Sikh Community in the Sacramento Valley,” SIKH SANSAR. 3:2 (June 1974), pp. 48-50.
The article provides a brief sketch of the legal and social aspects of Punjab Sikh society in the Sacramento Valley of California from the earliest passenger migrants to the early 1970’s. The extent of current agricultural endeavors and economic expansion is documented.
La Brack, Bruce. NEO-SIKHISM AND EAST INDIAN RELIGIOUS IDENTIFICATION. Unpublished paper delivered at Midwest Conference on Asian Affairs, November 1974. 13 pp.
Tracing the fluctuations of U.S. immigration policy and its social effect on Punjabi Sikhs, this article also seeks to evaluate the impact upon an East Indian Sikh community of large-scale conversion by American youth to Sikhism. Since the adoption of Sikhism by Westerners is a recent (post-1969) phenomenon in America, the conclusion that the orthodox stance of the new converts is exaggerating divisions within the Punjabi community is tentatively offered. The main point is that Sikhism, as a religion, has ceased to be a provincial faith associated exclusively with Punjabi South Asians.
“War with Great Britain,” OUTLOOK. 87 (September 14, 1907), pp. 51-52.
A factitious account of the Bellingham riots, this article speculates on their possible effect upon diplomatic relations with Great Britain. Noting that some people warned that the wrecking of a Japanese restaurant in San Francisco might bring war with Japan closer, the article seeks to equate running Sikhs out of Washington state as being a situation which might lead to a confrontation with England. The idea is rejected as ridiculous.
Singh, Sant Nihal. “The Triumph of the Indians in Canada,” THE MODERN REVIEW. 6:2 (August 1909), pp. 99-109.
Written to counteract the growing anti-Asian feeling in Canada, this article stressed the adaptability, fine character, and industry of East Indian immigrants to Canada. Minimizing caste and religious differences, the author says that identity as “Indians” is paramount and other aspects of social identity are secondary. The “triumph” of the title refers to overcoming racism, climate, and legal barriers. The article is strongly Sikh in outlook.
“American-Made Hindu Revolts,” THE LIBRARY DIGEST. 51:2 (July 10, 1915), p. 56
This is a one-page review of an article from the Madras (India) newspaper., NEW INDIA, in which conspiracy and rebellion “against the established government of India” is condemned. A large conference of Indians held at Stockton, California is mentioned, as well as the activities of Har Dayal. The article reflects concern over the fact that the Pacific Coast was the center for this revolutionary activity and that Germany was involved. The information is based on testimony from the Lahore Conspiracy trials held in India.
United States of America vs. Franz Bopp, et. al.
Defendants (record of trial in the District Court of the U.S. for the Southern Decision of the Northern District of California, First Decision; before the Hon. William C. Van Fleet, Judge. Charles R. Gagan and Edward C. Lehner, Official Reporters. Criminal Docket 5852-6352, Case No. 6133, 1917), 75 vols.
This document contains the complete court record of the trial of German Consul-General Bopp for subversive activities in the United States, including Ghadar-related plots during World War I. The trial became known as the “Hindu Conspiracy.” A summary of the main aspects of the trial are available in Marland Keith Stasser’s AMERICAN NEUTRALITY: THE CASE OF CONSULGENERAL BOPP, a master’s thesis from the University of California at Berkeley, 1939.
Johnson, Annette Thackwell. “The Rag Heads’ – A Picture of America’s East Indians,’’ THE INDEPENDENT. 109 (October 28, 1922), pp. 234-235.
Johnson gives a journalistic and personal view of a brief meeting between a woman whoa had lived in India for some years and two Sikh families living in the Fresno area, one man being married to a Mexican woman.
THE UNITED STATES OF INDIA. Published intermittently from July 1923 to February 1928, San Francisco.
This is a Ghadar sponsored monthly review of political, economic, social and intellectual progress towards independence in India.
Dunn, H. H. “ The Stranglers,” WIDE WORLD. (August 1932). Library of Congress.
This is a widely speculative piece of sensationalism which seeks to link a series of Sikh murders in the Sacramento Valley, which occurred during the late 1920’s and early ‘30’s, with a Hindu death cult. The author thoroughly confuses the Akali movement of the Sikhs, which is a political in the Punjab, with Kali, the Hindu goddess of destruction. The murders, a result of complex conflicts over immigration, control of funds, and other internal East Indian affairs, are described accurately enough, but the interpretations are pure fiction.
Fieldbrave, T. “East Indians in the United States,” MISSIONARY REVIEW. 57 (June 1934), pp. 291-293.
A Christina minister of East Indian background appeals for a better understanding of East Indians in the United States, and for support for Christina mission work among them.
Mores, Eric W. “Some Aspects of the Komagata Maru Affair, 1914,” CANADIAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION JOURNAL. 1936, pp. 100-108.
Morse gives a detailed examination of the political implications surrounding the refusal of Canadian immigration authorities to allow Sikh passengers of the Japanese ship Komagata Maru, to disembark in Vancouver Harbor.
Brown, Giles T. THE HINDU CONSPIRACY AND THE NEUTRALITY OF THE UNITED STATES. M.A.: University of California, Berkeley, 1941. 104 pp.
This political science study is concerned chiefly with aspects of international law connected with Ghadar Party activities and the resulting San Francisco trial of 1917.
Jones, Idwal. “Mr. Har Chand,” WESTWAYS. 31:9 (September 1939), pp. 16-17.
The author presents a short character sketch of a Sikh who worked for him in the 1930’s. Written with obvious affection, the article depicts the East Indian laborer in sympathetic, human terms. It provides a sharp contrast to the more prominent anti-Asian literature of that time.
Allen, Katheryn Martin. “Hindoos in the Valley,” WESTWAYS. 37:3 (March 1945), pp. 8-9.
Primarily a reminiscence, this article contains some interesting items, such as how a white friend loaned a Sikh $500 after the Indian had lost a considerable amount of money trying to raise cotton in the Imperial Valley. The Sikh moved to the Sacramento Valley and proceeded to “make a killing in rice.” The author estimates 600-700 East Indians once lived in the Imperial Valley area, 99% of whom were Sikhs, but notes that by the end of World War II, there were less than 100.
Naidis, Mark. “Propaganda of the Gadar Party,” PACIFIC HISTORICAL REVIEW, 20 (August 1951) pp. 251-260.
This compilation and analysis of the themes of Ghadar Party literature printed in English was aimed at the American audience and designed to elicit empathy and public support. Naidis sought to equate the Indian Independence movement with American and Irish rebellions against England. Other appeals were directed at organized labor, prohibitionists, suffragist, humanitarians, and even Jewish Zionist interests.
Smith, Bill. “California’s Bearded Lions,” FORTNIGHT: MAGAZINE OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 18:1 (September 1955), pp. 52-54.
In this short, anecdotal article, Smith discusses the Sikh community of the mid-1950’s. Focusing on the Stockton temple as a spiritual center for California’s East Indians, he reviews the successes, social transformations, and inter-migrations of Sikhs since 1912.
Spellman, John, “The International Extensions of Political Conspiracy as Illustrated by the Ghadar Party,” JOURNAL OF INDIAN HISTORY. 38 (1959), pp. 23-45.
Spellman’s article provides a wide-ranging examination of terrorist conspiracies and their multi-national dimensions. Tracing the network of the Ghadar Party as an illustration, he shows how the tactics and organization of this group are structurally similar to other radical political movements.
Saund, D.S. CONGRESSMAN FROM INDIA. New York: E.P. Dutton & Co., 1960. 192 pp.
An autobiographical account by the first Asian to be elected to the U.S. Congress, Saund tells of his early family life in the Punjab, his years as a student at Berkeley, agribusiness ventures in the Imperial Valley, and his political rise, first as judge, and later as Congressman. It is one of the few documents written by an East Indian about his American experiences, but it cannot be considered typical as Saund was a highly educated man who participated actively in American social life.
Banerjee, Kalyan Kumar. “East Indian Immigration into America: Beginnings of Indian Revolutionary Activity,” MODERN REVIEW. 116:5 (November 1964), pp. 335-361.
Offering an Indian view of the rise of political consciousness among East Indians living in Canada and the United States, the author considers the early deprivations and indignities suffered by Indian immigrants to be a catalyst which led them to fight for the independence of India. The key role of Har Dayal and the Ghadar Party in the freedom struggle is examined.
Singh, D.P. AMERICAN OFFICIAL ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE INDIAN NATIONALIST MOVEMENT, 1906-1929. Ph.D.: University of Hawaii, 1964. 447 pp.
A “views from the top,” the author examines a variety of source materials reflecting the United States government’s official attitudes towards Indian nationalism up to 1929 with an emphasis on 1905-1919. A shift from initial suspicion and hostility towards the nationalists to partial acceptance of their argument on the right to self-government is noted. Although not directly related to the East Indian experience in America, this dissertation does reveal the general attitudes of the United States government towards South Asian nationalists at a time when U.S. Ghadar activities were at their height, immigration restrictions on East Indians were being contemplated, and the Alien Land Act was passed. (Revised as AMERICAN ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE INDIAN NATIONALIST MOVEMENT, Munshiram, 1974).
Banerjee, Kalyan Kumar. “The U.S.A and Indian Revolutionary Activity: Early Phase of the Ghadr Movement, “MODERN REVIEW. 118:2 (February 1965), pp. 97-101.
This is a continuation of the series on East Indian freedom fighters begun in the above citation. Beginning with the foundation of the Pacific Coast Hindustani Association, this article traces the rise and fall of the Ghadar Party as an effective political instrument in the liberation of India from British rule. The role of Ram Chandra, Lajpat Rai, Har Dayal and others is notes as are the consequences of the Indo-German plot which resulted in a San Francisco conspiracy trial in 1917-18.
Bose, Arun Coomer. “Indians Nationalist Agitations in the U.S.A. and Canada Till the Arrival of Har Dayal in 1911,” JOURNAL OF INDIAN HISTORY. LXIII, Part I:127 (April 1965), pp. 227-239.
Concentrating on the organizations and personalities connected with early Indian nationalist agitation in the U.S. (primarily New York and California), Bose outlines the efforts of such men as S.N. Bose, Tamnath Das, and T.N. Das. These activities are viewed as “rather abortive attempts at organizing active sedition among Indian students and immigrants in the U.S. A and Canada …,” but they, “contributed towards the maturing of the Indian nationalist agitation” in India.
Vatuck, Ved Prakash and Slvia Vatuk. “Protest Songs of East Indians on the West Coast, U.S.A.,” FOLKLORE (Calcutta), 7:10 (October 1966), pp. 371-382.
In this article, the Vatuks analyze protest songs from the Ghadar Party era. Political in nature, these songs are seen as an integral part of the Indian rural popular song tradition. The symbolic content and thematic elements of selected songs, most of which were translated from Punjabi, are examined.
Banerjee, Kalyan Kumar. INDIAN FREEDOM MOVEMENT: REVOLUTIONAIRES IN AMERICA. Khargapur: Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology (Calcutta April 1969).
A combination of history and biography, this book provides a broad view of anit-British activities in the United States with particular attention to the Ghadar movement.
Ghuadhari, General J.N. “A View from Canada,” ILLUSTRATED WEEKLY OF INDIA. 92.2 (January 10, 1971), pp. 18-20.
The “special relationship” between Canada and India, particularly the generous foreign aid, is examined. Included are discussion of Canada’s role in providing technical and financial assistance in the development of atomic power projects and a brief mention of limited social integration by East Indians (with the exception of the Sikhs).
Dignan, Don K. “The Hindu Conspiracy in Anglo-American Relations During World War I” PACIFIC HISTORICAL REVIEW. LX (1971), pp. 57-76.
Dignan explores the effect of the so-called “Hindu” conspiracy on the World War I British and American political relations, pointing out the similarities in governmental attitudes towards “radical” East Indians in the U.S. This succinct article clearly reveals the tremendous legal and political pressures faced by the early migrants, including those who were personally apolitical. The British concern for internal security and preservation of colonial rule in India often coincided with American exclusionist forces, anti-Asian labor movements, and popular racist attitudes. The result was the halting of East Indian immigration to America in 1917, denial of citizenship in 1923, and numerous deportations; all such actions were approved by the British.
Singh, Sant. “DISCRIMINATION AGAINST KESHADHARI SIKHS IN CANADA,” SIKH REVIEW. 220:226 (September 1972), pp. 24-33.
Written in response to an inquiry from the Ontario Human Rights Commission on the necessity of maintaining the turban and hair, this is essentially a reaffirmation of the Sikh right to wear a beard and uncut hair as part of his religious convictions. Discrimination against Sikhs on the basis of their religious symbols is deplored, and shaving is equated with abandoning Sikhism.
Deodhar, Shyama. THE TREATMENT OF INDIA IN AMERICAN SOCIAL STUDIES TEXTBOOKS, 1921-1952. Ph.D.: University of Michigan, 1954. 284 pp.
One major source of American’s images of India are public school textbooks. The textbooks are also one of many indices which reflect changing attitudes and illuminate the fluctuating social climate which affected East Indian migrants to North America. In this study, seventy-two geographies and histories were reviewed to determine how closely their portrayals of India coincided with three major periods of Indo-American relations; Gadhian movements of Non-Cooperation, World War II, and Indian Independence. The conclusion is that treatment of India in American texts had paralleled that of political relations in general. The most biased pro-British content is evident in the books published in the 1920’s and the 1930’s while more balanced and accurate materials become available between 1948-1952. This study was updated in 1969 by Prakash V. Duggal in his Ph.D. dissertation, The treatment of India in Selected American Social Studies Textbooks, 1953-1968. University of Michigan, 1969. 304 pp. His main conclusions are that approaches to world history have become more anthropological and cultural rather than purely historical or chronological and that authors tend to be more analytical.
Kush, Harwant Kaur. THE SOCIAL PARTICIPATION AND ATTITUDES OF THE CHILDREN OF EAST INDIAN IMMIGRANTS. M.A.: Sacramento State College, 1965, 57 pp.
Drawing from the school populations of the Yuba City-Marysville area, the author selected a total of 30 students of East Indian (Sikh) parents and divided them into two groups: those born in India and those born in the United States. Data was gathered through semi-structured interviews and questionnaires. The hypothesis that American –born students would take a more active part in social activities of the wider society than India-born students was partially confirmed, although their value orientations were not found to be significantly different from their parents. Language facility is seen as an important variable which can retard or accelerate contracts outside the East Indian peer group.
Wenzel, Lawrence A. THE INDENTIFICATION AND ANALYSIS OF VERTAIN VALUE ORIENTATIONS OF TWO GENERATIONS OF EAST INDIANS IN CALIFORNIA. Ph.D.: University of the Pacific, 1966, 219 pp.
The study looks at value orientations in four areas: activity orientations, time orientation, mannature orientation, and relational orientation. The instrument used is a modification of Florence R. Kluckhohns’s interviews schedule which included Spanish-Americans, Texans, Mormons, Zuni and Navaho. The sample included East Indian students between the ages of fourteen and twenty and their parents (52 students and 62 parents). The value orientations and the relationship between other variables, such as age, sex, amount of material culture, and length of residence in the United States, are noted. The results indicate that there are no great or significant disparities in the values of different segments of the East Indian population in the Sutter County area, except in the time orientation; the younger generation being present oriented, while their parents are future oriented.
Shankar, Richard Ashok. INTEGRATION GOAL DEFINITION OF THE EAST INDIAN STUDENTS IN THE SUTTER COUNTY AREA. M.A.: Chico State University, 1971. 85 pp.
Based on questionnaires distributed to East Indian students attending Yuba College (Yuba County, California) and schools in the Yuba City Unified School District (Sutter County California), the author gathered material in the areas of external ethnic customs, social interaction patterns, and assimilation of values and norms. A Fijian East Indian himself, he sought to test the hypothesis that the first American-born generation would be a generation of change. He concludes that within the Sikh community of Yuba City Marysville, the second generation has not experienced the degree of social or psychological change associated with European or Oriental immigrant populations elsewhere, as they “traditional” responses are nearly equal in both Indian-born and American-born respondents.
Solanki, Ratilal. AMERICANIZATION OF IMMIGRANTS: A STUDY IN ACCULTURATION OF ASIAN INDIANS IN THE STATE OF COLORADO AND THE EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS THEREOF. Denver, Colorado: University of Denver, 1973. 246 pp.
The author attempted to determine the extent of acculturation among Asian Indian families permanently residing in the State of Colorado. His indices of change included dietary habits, clothing styles and personal adornment, use of English, recreation patters, religious practices, social interaction, attitudes towards marriage and family structure, and personal identification. He concludes that acculturation of adults and children is minimal and therefore the home is “not the most desirable place to find support for the children’s acculturation.” Solanki sees the schools as providing the greatest opportunities for inducing social change among East Indian youth.
Carroll, Elizabeth J. EAST INDIAN (SIKH) WOMEN STUDENTS AT YUBA COLLEGE. Unpublished manuscript, 1973. 60 pp.
The author, a teacher and long time resident of the Northern Sacramento Valley, conducted a survey among Sikh women students at Yuba College in an attempt to elicit their needs and desires as related to the institution. The implicit concern of the study was to uncover areas in which the institution could assist assimilation. Equally implicit was the belief that endogamy or “arranged marriages within the ethnic group” was a deterrent to social integration. Her conclusions includes the recommendation that the social contacts of Sikh women be enlarged through more participation in college activities and other acceptable social functions. In this way, the isolation which characterizes the East Indian population in the Yuba Sutter County areas could be somewhat alleviated.
Bose, Sudhindra. “American Impressions of a Hindu Student,” FORUM. 53 (February 1915), pp. 251-257.
A personal statement of the emotional and intellectual changes undergone by an East Indian as a student in the United States, this account is “typical” in that an initially idealistic and extravagant view of American ideals gives way to a more realistic and less superficial understanding of American culture and society. Bose claims there are two hundred East Indians in attendance at American colleges and universities. While praising the independent thinking and relaxed social attitudes of students and government officials, he notes color prejudice and lack of empathy for or interest in Indian religious views, whether Buddhist, Muslim or Hindu.
Shridharani, Krishnalal. MY INDIA, MY AMERICA. New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1941. 607 pp.
The author, a Guajarati Vaish, discusses his boyhood in India and how him impressions of life in the United States changed during his eight-year stay. His first problems were dispelling the stereotypes of India and her peoples as all fortune tellers, maharajas or beggars. Comparing Indian and American Cultures, he found the differences to be in how things were accomplished, not the objectives themselves. The book was written as an attempt to explain the Hindu mind and cultural practices to the American people and is an interesting account of the “student view” of America.
Lambert, Richard D. and Marvin Bressler. “Indian Students and the United States: Cross Cultural Images,” THE ANNALS OF THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF POLITICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCE (America Through Foreign Eyes). 295 (September 1954), pp. 62-72.
This article is one of several concerning East Indians which grew out of a program sponsored by the Committee on Cross-Cultural Education of the Social Science Research Council. Here the focus is on three types of cultural reference which Indian students bring to bear on their American experiences: family practices, political behavior, and race relations. One result of the study was to uncover “sensitive area complexes” or topics which when raised by an American, cause the Indian student to react negatively both to the individual and the United States. The authors feel that, “If confirmed by subsequent research, the implication of this thesis is that so long as Indian students and visitors from other ‘low-status’ countries correctly or incorrectly perceive that Americans hold and unfavorable image of their home countries, even extravagantly favorable assessments of American life will be largely irrelevant to the formation of ‘friendly’ attitudes toward the United States. This “sensitive area” idea is applicable not only to transient East Indian students but to immigrant and native-born East Indian students attending American educational institutions.
Lambert, Richard D. and Marvin Bressler. INDIAN STUDENTS ON AN AMERICAN CAMPUS. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1956. 122 pp.
Lambert and Bressler describes the experiences of 16 Indians, two Pakistanis, and a Singhalese enrolled for one academic year at the University of Pennsylvania. Using intensive interviews and elaborate questionnaires, the differences between life styles in America and the various “roles” that Indian students elect or are expected to play are explored. Various aspects of the students’ experience as “student,” “tourist,” and “ambassador of a foreign culture” are examined in detail. IN some sense, the roles of tourist and ambassador are shared by all East Indians who come to America, whether as students or as permanent residents.
Coelho, George V. CHANGING IMAGES OF AMERICA: A STUDY OF INDIAN STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press, 1958. 145 pp.
Combining case histories, interview schedules and observations, the author has examined 60 East Indian students’ perceptions of America. He found four phases: first, the “arrival” period of tension and the difficulties of presenting the “Indian” point of view, which lasts approximately a week; the second phase, lasting from three to nine months during which the student becomes disillusioned with American life and more critical of U.S. cultural values; the third period is a time of increasing acculturation and broader outlooks and lists from 18 to 36 months; the fourth phase, beginning after four years, marks a gradual depoliticization and an attempt to avoid alienation in the host society. Since many Indian students do remain in the United States after their education, and a large number eventually become citizens, this study has important implications for understanding East Indian reactions to American society.
Slim, Md. REACTIONS OF PAKISTANI STUDENTS STUDYING IN THE UNITED STATES TOWARD THE SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN SELECTED COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES. Ed.D.: Colorado State College, 1962. 175 pp.
Selim examines the reaction of Pakistani students to their experiences in American colleges and universities. The finings show that students generally feel that their colleges are indifferent to their needs and to the necessity and importance of orientation programs for foreign students. Most students perceive valuable charges in their philosophy and outlook, some becoming more critical of American culture as a result of residence here. Many felt that aspects of the United States higher education system, such as quarter or semester systems, the use of objective test, and student counseling services, should be introduced in Pakistani colleges.
Burger, Josef. INDIAN STUDENTS AND AMERICAN EDUCATION: AN EVALUATION OF A NEW TOOL OF AMERICAN FOREIGN POLICY. Ph.D.: University of Wisconsin, 1965. 173 pp.
Through a series of interviews with Indian students attending the University of Wisconsin, the author sought to determine if a study tour in the United States improved their attitudes towards the U.S. government and its foreign policy goals. The underlying motive was to test the effectiveness of educational exchange programs as an instrument of American diplomacy. The findings showed that rather than changing preconceived ides, the East Indian students who were attracted to such programs already held favorable images of the United States. There was no clear relation between the level of political knowledge and the direction of the student’s political attitudes. It was concluded that educational exchange policy succeeds by reinforcing positive images already held by pro-American Indian students, not through changing negative opinions.
Gandhi Rajnikant Suresh. LITTLE INDIAN: LOCALISM AND COSMOPOLITANISM IN AN INDIAN STUDENT COLONY. Ph.D.: University of Minesota, 1967. 372 pp.
Based on an examination of the concept of “community” as a “total way of life which need not be anchored to a restricted territory,” this sociological study was conducted among East Indian students (150-200 persons) who comprise a “little India” on a Midwestern college campus. The theory stated that polarization would occur within this group due to a division between “locals” who adhere to the past and those who actively embrace the future (cosmopolitans). Such a split was interpreted as a micro-cosmic refection of the situation in Greater South Asian India. The description of Little India as a “unique ethnic-status community internally polarized between locals (who are inner-community and tradition oriented) and cosmopolitans (who are extra-community and scientific-industrial oriented)”, as directly applicable to many contemporary East Indian communities in the United States.
Paul, Gurbachan Singh. THE STAY OR RETURN DECISION OF INDIAN STUDENTS: A SPECIAL CASE OF INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION. Ph.D.: University of Oregon, 1972.
The author considers a decision by East Indian students not to return to India after advanced academic straining an important type of immigration behavior. The study was conducted among those who had made the decision to remain in the United States some years before. It was found that married respondents with master’s or higher degrees decided to return to India more often than respondents who were unmarried and had a bachelor’s degree from India. This study, although conducted only a few years ago, is related to the entire process of East Indian migrate to America because throughout the last 70 years, thousands of students have and continue to, take up U.S. residency. Historically, this has meant the continual presence of highly educated East Indians who have often acted as representatives and leaders of their communities. Socially, this group is the most urbane and have adapted to American society with a minimum of conflict.
Source: Sikh Sansar. 1972-1974.